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我国行政复议制度的发展轨迹、现实弊端与未来展望/傅美容

作者:法律资料网 时间:2024-07-02 12:31:36  浏览:8595   来源:法律资料网
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我国行政复议制度的发展轨迹、现实弊端与未来展望

傅美容 姜明辉


摘 要 :30多年的改革开放成就了我国行政法制建设的发展。行政复议制度作为一种重要的行政法律制度,经历了一个不断发展与完善的过程。本文全面回顾了改革开放以来我国行政复议制度的成长历程,分析了当前我国行政复议制度的现实弊端,并对未来行政复议制度的完善作出了展望。

关键词:行政复议制度;发展轨迹;现实弊端;未来展望


一、改革开放30多年我国行政复议制度的发展轨迹

  改革开放以来, 随着民主与法制建设的不断发展,我国行政法制建设也取得了长足的发展。同其他法律制度一样,行政复议制度也经历了一个不断发展与完善的过程。其每一个发展阶段,都标志着我国行政复议制度的日益健全与完善,在依法治国和行政法治化的进程中发挥着重要的作用。

(一)行政复议制度的恢复阶段

  20世纪50年代,我国已有了行政复议制度,但没有专门的立法。60年代至70年代后期,由于左倾冒进和法律虚无主义影响,加之“文化大革命”给我国社会主义法制建设造成的破坏,行政复议制度与新中国成立以来逐步建立并正在发展中的其他制度一样,几乎夭折。1978年底,党的十一届三中全会召开,总结了新中国建立以来正反两方面的经验教训,在我国社会主义法制建设的历史上第一次确认了法制在社会生活中的作用,提出了加强社会主义法制建设的战略任务。[ 滕明荣.《行政复议法》对我国现行行政复议制度的新发展[J].宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(2):75.]行政复议制度作为社会主义法制建设的一项重要内容重新被提到议事日程上来, 并得到迅速发展,行政复议制度由此进入复兴时期。据统计,至1989年4月4日《行政诉讼法》颁布以前,我国当时已有近百部法律、法规和规章对行政复议作了规定,其内容涉及公安、工商管理等20多种行政管理活动。行政复议作为一种制度具有的普遍性已经展现在人们面前。行政复议制度对维护公民、法人和其他社会组织的合法权益,加强行政机关自身的监督,树立政府的形象,发挥了积极作用。但是,这一时期的行政复议具有以下缺陷:
  第一,大多是原则性的规定,操作性差,而且每一部规范性文件只针对某一类型的行政行为规定不服可以申请行政复议,缺乏一部对行政复议的基本原则、范围、管辖、程序等作出统一规定的行政复议基本法。
  第二,行政复议的名称不统一,有的称申诉,有的称复议,还有一些其他的称谓。
  第三,规定行政复议制度的规范性文件的效力层级高低不同,有的是法律,有的是行政法规,还有的是部门规章。
  第四,各个规范性文件对各种行政行为不服申请复议的期限规定也不尽一致。
  第五,在行政复议与行政诉讼的关系上,没有一个概括和明确的统一规定,大部分采用复议前置的模式,极少数采用的是复议与诉讼选择模式,而且对复议后可否行政诉讼,除了《外国人入境出境管理法》、《中国公民出境入境管理法》两个出入境管理法明确规定不得再行提起行政诉讼外,其他规范性文件很少提及此问题。

(二)行政复议制度的规范发展阶段

  1989年《行政诉讼法》的颁布,对依法行政有很大的促进作用。为了配合《行政诉讼法》的实施,国务院于1990年颁布了《行政复议条例》。这个条例的颁布,标志着行政复议制度日趋成熟,改变了行政复议分散不协调的立法状态,在行政法规的层面上实现了行政复议制度的系统化,行政复议的准司法功能特性已被认识和接受,行政复议制度开始向大一统方向迈进。
  虽然《行政复议条例》向建立独立统一的行政复议制度迈出了重大一步,对维护和监督行政机关依法行使职权,保护行政相对人的合法权益,发挥了积极作用。但是《行政复议条例》毕竟是《行政诉讼法》的配套制度,缺少独创性和独立性,在具体的实践过程中存在不少问题,如受案范围窄;申请复议的限制较多,公民、法人或其他组织申请复议不方便;由于法律责任不明确,有的行政机关应当受理而不予受理,甚至官官相护,对违法的具体行政行为该撤销的不撤销,对不正当的具体行政行为该变更的不变更;机构的不健全,人员的不到位,经费的不落实,难以保障复议制度的落实。据统计,在《行政复议条例》实施初期,各地的行政复议案件数量大增,不少地方甚至超过了行政诉讼案件。但是自1993年以后各地的行政复议案件就开始下降,在《行政复议法》颁布以前,再也没有达到《行政复议条例》实施初期的水平。内中原因,除了行政机关的法治意识增强和其他客观因素以外,行政复议制度的行政性过强,在制度设计上过于强调内部的自我监督,忽视纠纷的解决和相对人权益的保护无疑是最重要的因素。

(三)行政复议制度的进一步完善阶段

  在《行政复议条例》实施8年实践经验的基础上,为了进一步发展和完善行政复议制度,全国人大于1999年4月29日通过并颁布了《行政复议法》,并于1999年10月1日施行。这部法律在立法宗旨上突出了对行政相对人合法权益的保护,也强化了对行政机关依法行使职权的监督。它的公布实施对于完善我国的行政复议制度具有重要的法律意义,标志着我国的行政复议制度正式摆脱了配套地位,提高了立法层次,以法律的形式实现了独立和统一,成为与行政诉讼并列的行政救济制度。这是我国民主与法制建设的又一重要成果,是我国政府在依法治国,依法行政方面迈出的有力步伐。与《行政复议条例》相比,《行政复议法》扩大了行政复议的受案范围,进一步加强了行政复议制度在解决行政争议方面的作用;拓宽了权利救济的范围;提高了行政复议主体的级别,增强了申请复议的选择性;完善了行政复议的操作程序,更充分地体现了便民、高效原则;严格了行政机关不履行行政复议职责的法律责任,加大了监督力度。行政复议案件的办理质量也得到了大幅度的提高,绝大多数的行政复议案件实现了“案结事了”,申请人不再向人民法院起诉,从而及时化解了一大批复杂的行政争议,有效地维护了人民群众的合法权益。
  然而,从具体的制度运作来看,行政复议的实施情况并不是很好。从总体上看,行政复议案件的申请数量并未象人们所期待的那样增长,2007年全国行政复议申请数量较前几年有所下降。值得注意的是,同期的行政诉讼案件增长明显,信访中行政纠纷方面的案件也节节攀升。这在一定程度上反映出行政相对人对行政复议制度缺乏信任。同时,行政复议决定维持率极高,行政复议的公正性受到质疑。全国行政复议机关维持率大约一直在50%以上。另外,向人民法院提起行政诉讼的案件中,70%以上是没有经过复议直接起诉的,这也从一个侧面反映出行政复议的公正性是不被认同的。还有,行政复议效率低下、救济效果相对滞后。由于受“行政化”指导思想的影响,很多地方用办文的方式办理复议案件,复议案件往往要经过多道程序的审批,等到最后的批示下发给承办人,至少要白白花去半个多月的时间。
  为了进一步完善行政争议解决机制,进一步增强行政复议制度的可操作性,修补复议制度在纠纷解决机制方面的不足,2007年5月29日国务院颁布了《中华人民共和国行政复议法实施条例》(以下简称《条例》),自2007年8月1日起施行。《条例》共7章66条,以充分发挥行政复议制度在构建和谐社会中的作用为取向,其体系与我国基本国情相结合,体现了落实国家基本行政救济制度和保护人民利益并重的精神。[王雅丽.《行政复议法实施条例》的制度创新[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版) , 2007(5):120.]《条例》的制度设计,在许多方面体现了实用和创新的鲜明特点,对我国行政救济制度的发展以及民生的保护将会产生重大的作用。其创新集中表现在强化行政复议机构的建设,从组织上保证行政复议制度的有效运作;通过相关制度的健全和创新,畅通行政复议渠道;引入听证制度,健全行政复议的审查方式;确立了行政复议权利告知制度;规定了复议中的调解和和解制度,行政机关的“有错快改”制度等方面。

二、我国行政复议制度的现实弊端

  尽管《条例》对行政复议制度作了深度完善,但囿于下位法无法根本弥补上位法的不足,我国的行政复议制度仍然存在以下弊端:
  第一,行政复议机构缺乏应有的独立性。行政复议的本质内涵决定了其必须由一个统一的具有高度独立性的机构来实施复议行为。我国行政复议机构由政府法制机构或政府部门内设机构充任,缺乏一套统一和独立的行政复议机构体系。这样既不利于公正地进行行政复议,也不利于机构精简。同时产生了各种缺陷:首先,不能公正地进行行政复议裁决。主持复议的行政机构完全听命于所属的行政首长,没有自主决定权。其次,国家行政追求的最终目标就是提高行政效率,但是在行政复议这一体系中,由于没有统一的复议机构体系,违背了行政机关的精简效能原则,造成机构臃肿,加重了各级各类行政机关的负担,造成了人员一定程度的浪费,不利于行政机关工作效率的提高。复议组织的超然、独立是作出公正复议决定的重要保障。
  第二,行政复议人员缺乏应有的专业性。行政复议人员以行政复议机关的名义具体审查复议案件并做出复议决定,应具有与其职责相应的专业知识和工作经验,法律应严格规定行政复议人员的任职资格,保证复议人员尽职尽责,真正发挥行政复议制度的作用。实践中行政复议案件种类繁多,牵涉面广,行政复议人员若缺乏对法律精神、制度的宏观把握,不熟识各种法律法规,很难担此重任。各国均对行政复议人员任用资格作出严格规定,一般均要求精通法律,国外行政复议人员不少都是执业律师出身,有较高的专业水平和福利保障。但我国现行法律对复议人员任用资格无明文规定,许多复议人员都是半路出家,没有接受过专门法律教育,同时具有一定专业水平的人员又感到无用武之地,有的甚至因坚持依法办事而被调离,复议人员稳定性差,复议工作缺乏必要连续性。
  第三,行政复议范围仍然不够宽泛,内部行政行为不能申请复议,公务员合法权益受到侵犯不能得到及时、有效的救济。对可以申请复议的规范性文件只能同具体行政行为一同申请复议,不能单独提起等。其实行政复议既然是行政系统内部进行复查复审,对复议范围的规定应当比行政诉讼宽泛,不宜于人民法院审理的案件,都应当纳入到行政复议范围内。
  第四,在审查方式上过于强调书面审查,存在不可避免的缺陷。省略了各方当事人对对方陈述事实与依据进行据实据理反驳的程序;忽视了纠纷各方程序上的权利,使复议结果的可信赖度降低。

三、我国行政复议制度的未来展望

  为了更好地发挥行政复议制度促使行政机关依法行政,保护行政相对人合法权益的重大作用,充分实现行政复议制度立法宗旨,鉴于上述行政复议制度中的弊端,笔者对未来我国行政复议制度作如下展望:
  第一,逐步设立独立的行政复议机构。复议机构的独立设置,不仅是各国行政行为审查机制的共同发展趋势,也是我国加入WTO后面临的现实要求。WTO规则所涉及的司法审查,只要求审查机构保持充分独立性,并不排除审查机构具有形式上的某种行政属性。增强行政复议机构的独立性,可以参考美国的行政法官制度和韩国的行政审判委员会制度,考虑在县级以上各级地方政府和国务院各部门设立独立的不受本级政府和部门控制的行政复议委员会。复议委员会聘请约占复议委员会人员总数的1/2以上的专家担任委员;让专家委员参与所有“开庭审理”的案件。
  第二,建立行政复议人员任职资格制度,确保行政复议人员的专业水平。毫无疑问,没有复议机构的独立地位,很难吸引有能力有志向的专业人员进入行政复议队伍,但如果不能确保复议人员具有与职责相适应的专业水平,即使设立独立的复议机构,也无法达到设立复议制度的本来目标。因此,对复议人员提出相应的专业要求与复议机构享有独立地位同等重要。国外行政复议人员,一般都有相当法律水准,不少都是执业律师出身。[ 美国的行政法官就是为了解决行政争端的繁琐而产生的,并且行政法官都是从具有律师资格和有行政经验的人员中选择的。见王名扬.美国行政法[M].北京:中国法制出版社,1995:453-456.]我国在设置相对独立的复议机构的同时,应建立行政复议人员任职资格制度,由国务院法制机构统一组织全国的复议人员资格考试,提高复议人员的专业素质。同时在国务院法制机构设立复议人员管理机构,统一任免全国各省级行政复议委员会和国务院各部门的复议人员;在省级政府法制机构设立全省统一的行政复议人员管理机构,统一任免和管理全省各级行政复议委员会的复议人员。
  第三,扩展行政复议的范围。采用正面概括规定和反面列举排除的方式界定行政复议的范围,除其他法律有特殊规定以外,行政相对人和行政主体之间的所有行政争议都可以申请行政复议,确立当事人对行政机关的大多数行为均可以申请行政复议的原则。同时把规章以下的规范性文件纳入可以单独申请行政复议的范围。
  第四,改革审查方式,修改以书面审查为原则,听证审理为例外的规定,确立书面审查和听证审理相结合的方式,采用概括规定和具体列举相结合的方式明确听证审理的范围。完善听证程序,对复议申请人的申请听证权、法定听证范围以及听证的具体程序作出明确的规定,确立行政复议听证中的裁审分离和案卷排他性原则。
  尽管我国现行的行政复议制度可能存在这样或那样的不足,并不如想象的那样令人十分满意,但应当肯定的是改革开放30多年来我国的行政复议法制建设取得了长足的发展,在依法治国和行政法治化的进程中发挥了重要作用。希望我国的行政复议制度不断在改革中完善,在完善中趋向成熟。诚然,行政复议制度的完善是一个渐进的过程。它需要理论的指导,更需要实践的检验。随着我国民主法制建设的稳步推进,相信在我们的共同努力下,一定能够把行政复议制度推上一个新的台阶。
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北京市发展和改革委员会关于印发《北京市商品和服务明码标价的规定》(试行)的通知

北京市发展和改革委员会


关于印发《北京市商品和服务明码标价的规定》(试行)的通知

京发改[2009]955号


各区(县)发展改革委、各有关单位:
  为进一步规范市场价格秩序和明码标价行为,维护消费者和经营者的合法权益,我委根据国家有关法律、法规和规定,制定了《北京市商品和服务明码标价的规定》(试行)。现印发给你们,请认真贯彻执行。
特此通知。



                二〇〇九年五月十二日



北京市商品和服务明码标价的规定(试行)



  第一条 为进一步规范明码标价行为,切实维护消费者和经营者的合法权益,根据《中华人民共和国价格法》和国家发展改革委《关于商品和服务实行明码标价的规定》,制定本规定。
第二条 凡在北京市行政区域内收购、销售商品或者提供服务的价格行为,适用本规定。国家另有规定的,从其规定。
  第三条 市价格主管部门是本市明码标价工作的管理机关,统一规定明码标价的标价方式。市价格监督检查部门负责全市明码标价实施情况的监督检查,区、县价格监督检查部门负责本行政区域内明码标价实施情况的监督检查。
  第四条 行业协会、各类市场主办单位,应当协助价格主管部门贯彻明码标价规定。
  农贸市场、摊群市场的明码标价工作,由主办单位按本规定负责组织落实。
  第五条 明码标价应当做到项目齐全、标价内容真实明确、字迹清晰、货签对位、标示醒目。价格变动时应当及时更换。
  第六条 明码标价应当使用商品标价签、价目本、价目表、价格牌、公示栏、电子屏幕或电子触摸设备等,经营者可以根据需要自行设计制作。同一经营场所明码标价的方式应当保持一致。
  第七条 明码标价应当标明“价格举报电话:12358” 和“监督电话:***”(监督电话指行业主管单位或本经营场所、本单位的服务监督电话)。
  第八条 销售商品应当使用商品标价签,商品标价签应当标明品名、产地、规格、等级、计价单位、零售价格等项目。
  不宜使用标价签的小商品,经营者应当逐件标明价格。
  第九条 降价销售商品应当使用降价标价签。降价标价签统一为黄色,应当标明品名、产地、规格、等级、计价单位、原价、现价、降价原因、降价期限等项目。
  经营者应当保留降价前交易记录和票据等有关资料,以备查证。
  第十条 经营场所全场或降价区同幅度降价销售的商品,可在原标价签上使用降价胶贴标明现价,使用统一方式标明具体的降价幅度、期限及降价原因。
  第十一条 提供有偿服务的经营者,应在经营场所、服务区域或收费地点的醒目位置明码标价,公布服务项目、计价单位、服务内容(等级或规格)、收费标准等应告知的有关事项。
  经营者提供上门服务的,应当在服务前主动向用户出示与其经营场所明码标价内容一致的价目表或价目本等,以便用户选择、查询。
  第十二条 通过网络、报纸、电视、广播等形式进行经营活动的经营者,应当明码标价,公示商品价格、收费项目和收费标准。
  第十三条 经营者需要变更标价签的标价项目或使用其它特殊标价方式的,需向市价格监督检查部门备案。
  第十四条 经营者不按规定明码标价,或者利用标价进行价格欺诈的,由政府价格主管部门依法查处。
  第十五条 以往规定与本规定不符的,以本规定为准。
  第十六条 本规定自2009年9月1日起试行。




MERCHANT SHIPPING (LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION FOR OIL POLLUTION) ORDINANCE ——附加英文版

Hong Kong


MERCHANT SHIPPING (LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION FOR OIL POLLUTION) ORDINANCE
 (CHAPTER 414)
 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
  
  ion
  
  I    PRELIMINARY
  hort title
  nterpretation
  ertificate as to parties to Conventions
  alculation of tonnage
  
  II    LIABILITY FOR OIL POLLUTION AND COMPULSORY INSURANCE
  nterpretation of Part II
  iability for oil pollution
  xceptions from liability under section 6
  estriction of liability for oil pollution
  imitation of liability under section 6
  Limitation actions
  Restriction on enforcement of claims after establishment of
limitation
  fund
  Concurrent liabilities of owners and others
  Establishment of limitation fund outside Hong Kong
  Extinguishment of claims under Part II
  Compulsory insurance against liability for oil pollution
  Issue of certificate by Director
  Rights of third parties against insurers
  Jurisdiction of Hong Kong courts and registration of foreign
judgments
  Warships, etc.
  Liability for cost of preventive measures where section 6 does
not
  apply
  Saving for recourse actions
  
  III   THE INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION COMPENSATION FUND
  Interpretation of Part III
  Contributions to the Fund
  Power to obtain information
  Liability of the Fund for pollution damage
  Indemnification of ship owner where ship registered in Fund
Convention
  country
  Effect of judgments
  Extinguishment of claims under Part III
  Subrogation and rights of recourse
  
  IV    MISCELLANEOUS
  Offences by bodies corporate
  Fees
  Amendments, Savings and Repeals
  
  dule 1. Overall limit on liability of Fund
  dule 2. (Omitted)
  
  rdinance to provide for compensation for pollution caused 
by the
  harge or escape of oil from oil-carrying ships and for the 
liability
  hipowners; for compulsory insurance in respect of such liability; 
for
  ributions by oil importers and others to the International 
Fund for
  ensation for Oil Pollution Damage; for the liability of the 
Fund in
  ain circumstances for such pollution; for the 
indemnification of
  owners by the Fund; and for incidental or related matters.
  January 1991] L. N. 13 of 1991
 PART I Preliminary
  
  hort title
  Ordinance may be cited as the Merchant Shipping 
(Liability and
  ensation for Oil Pollution) Ordinance.
  nterpretation
  In this Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires--
  t" includes expenses;
  ntry" includes any territory;
  rt" means the High Court or a judge thereof;
  age" includes loss;
  ector" means the Director of Marine;
  d Convention" means the International Convention on the 
establishment
  n International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage 
opened
  signature in Brussels on 18 December 1971;
  g Kong ship" means a ship registered in Hong Kong;
  bility Convention" means the International Convention 
on  Civil
  ility for Oil Pollution Damage opened for signature in Brussels
on 29
  mber 1969;
  er", in relation to a ship, means the person or persons registered 
as
  owner of the ship or, in the absence of registration, the 
person or
  ons owning the ship, except that in relation to a ship owned 
by a
  e which is operated by a person registered as the ship's operator, 
it
  s the person registered as its operator; (Amended 74 of 1990 s.
104
  
  lution damage" means damage caused outside a ship carrying 
oil by
  amination resulting from the discharge or escape of oil from the
ship,
  ever the discharge or escape may occur, and includes the 
cost of
  entive measures and damage caused by preventive measures;
  ventive measures" means any reasonable measures taken by any 
person
  r a discharge or escape of oil from a ship to prevent or 
reduce
  ution damage;
  p" means any sea-going vessel or seaborne craft of 
any  type
  soever, carrying oil in bulk as cargo;
  cial drawing rights" means units of account used by the 
International
  tary Fund and known as special drawing rights;
  minal installation" means any site for the storage of oil in 
bulk
  h is capable of receiving oil from waterborne 
transportation,
  uding any facility situated offshore and linked to any such site.
  For the purposes of this Ordinance, where more than one 
discharge or
  pe results from the same occurrence or from a series of 
occurrences
  ng the same origin, they shall be treated as one; but any 
measures
  n after the first of them shall be deemed to have been taken after
the
  harge or escape.
  References in this Ordinance to the area of any country include 
the
  itorial sea of that country.
  
  ertificate as to parties to Conventions
  rtificate signed by the Governor and certifying that a State
specified
  he certificate--
  is a party to the Liability Convention in respect of a 
country
  ified in the certificate; or
  is a party to the Fund Convention in respect of a country specified
in
  certificate,
  l be conclusive evidence of the matters contained therein and
shall in
  legal proceedings under this Ordinance to which it 
relates be
  ssible on its production and without further proof.
  alculation of tonnage
  the purposes of this Ordinance, the tonnage of a ship 
shall be
  rtained as follows--
  where the register tonnage of the ship has been or can be 
ascertained
  ccordance with the Merchant Shipping (Tonnage) Regulations 
(App. I,
  , the ship's tonnage shall be the register tonnage of the ship 
as so
  rtained but without making any deduction required by those
regulations
  ny tonnage allowance for propelling machinery space;
  where the ship is of a class or description with respect to which 
no
  ision is for the time being made by the Merchant Shipping 
(Tonnage)
  lations, the tonnage of the ship shall be taken to be 40% 
of the
  ht (expressed in tons of 2 240 lbs) of oil which the ship is 
capable
  arrying;
  where the tonnage of the ship can not be ascertained in 
accordance
  either paragraph (a) or (b), the Director shall, if so directed 
by
  court in any proceedings, certify what, on the evidence 
specified in
  direction, would in his opinion be the tonnage of the 
ship as
  rtained in accordance with paragraph (a) or (b), as the case may 
be,
  he ship could be duly measured for the purpose; and the tonnage
stated
  is certificate shall be taken to be the tonnage of the ship.
 PART II LIABILITY FOR OIL POLLUTION AND COMPULSORY INSURANCE
  
  nterpretation of Part II
  In this Part--
  bility Convention country" means a country in respect of 
which the
  ility Convention is in force; and
  bility Convention State" means a State which is a party 
to the
  ility Convention.
  In relation to any pollution damage resulting from the 
discharge or
  pe of any oil carried in a ship references in this Part to the 
owner
  he ship are references to the owner at the time of the 
occurrence
  lting in the discharge or escape or, if there is more than one 
such
  rrence, at the time of the first of such occurrences.
  References in this Part to the Merchant Shipping Act 1979 (1979
c. 39
  .) are references to that Act as it applies in Hong Kong.
  
  iability for oil pollution
  Where, as a result of any occurrence taking place while a 
ship is
  ying a cargo of persistent oil in bulk, any persistent oil carried 
by
  ship (whether as part of the cargo or otherwise) is 
discharged or
  pes from the ship, the owner of the ship shall be liable, except 
as
  rwise provided by this Ordinance, for any pollution damage 
caused in
  Kong.
  Where--
  a liability arises under subsection (1); and
  the discharge or escape by reason of which the liability arose 
also
  lts in pollution damage in the area of a Liability Convention 
country
  r than Hong Kong, the owner of the ship concerned shall also be
liable
  r subsection (1) for that damage as if the damage had occurred
in Hong
  .
  Where persistent oil is discharged or escapes from 2 or more 
ships
  -
  a liability is incurred under this section by the owner of 
each of
  ; but
  the pollution damage for which each of the owners would, apart 
from
  subsection, be liable cannot reasonably be separated from that 
for
  h the other or others would be liable,
  of the owners shall be liable, jointly with the other or others, 
for
  whole of that damage for which the owners together would be 
liable
  r this section.
  Section 21 of the Law Amendment and Reform (Consolidation)
Ordinance
  . 23) shall apply in relation to any pollution damage for 
which a
  on is liable under this section, but which is not due to his fault,
as
  t were due to his fault.
  xceptions from liability under section 6
  owner of a ship from which persistent oil has been discharged or 
has
  ped shall not incur any liability under section 6 if he proves 
that
  discharge or escape--
  resulted from an act of war, hostilities, civil war, 
insurrection or
  xceptional, inevitable and irresistible natural phenomenon; or
  was due wholly to anything done or left undone by another person, 
not
  g a servant or agent of the owner, with intent to do damage; or
  was due wholly to the negligence or wrongful act of a 
government or
  r authority in exercising its function of maintaining lights or 
other
  gational aids for the maintenance of which it was responsible.
  estriction of liability for oil pollution
  e, as a result of any occurrence taking place while a ship is
carrying
  rgo of persistent oil in bulk, any persistent oil carried by the
ship
  ther as part of the cargo or otherwise) is discharged or escapes
then,
  her or not the owner incurs a liability under section 6,--
  he shall not be liable otherwise than under that section for any 
such
  ution damage as is mentioned therein; and
  no servant or agent of the owner and no person performing 
salvage
  ations with the agreement of the owner shall be liable for any 
such
  ge.
  
  imitation of liability under section 6
  e the owner of a ship incurs a liability under section 6 by reason 
of
  scharge or escape which occurred without his actual fault or 
privity,
  ay limit that liability in accordance with this Ordinance, and 
if he
  so his liability (that is to say, the aggregate of his 
liabilities
  r section 6 resulting from the discharge or escape) shall not
exceed--
  133 special drawing rights for each ton of the ship's tonnage;
or
  14,000,000 special drawing rights, whichever amount is the less.
  
  Limitation actions
  Where the owner of a ship has or is alleged to have 
incurred a
  ility under section 6 he may apply to the court in accordance 
with
  s of court for the limitation of that liability to 
an amount
  rmined in accordance with section 9.
  If on such an application the court finds that the 
applicant has
  rred such a liability and is entitled to limit it, the court 
shall
  rmine the limit of the liability and direct payment into court
of the
  nt of that limit, and shall then
  determine the amounts that would, apart from the limit, be 
due in
  ect of the liability to the several persons making claims 
in the
  eedings under this section; and
  direct the distribution of the amount paid into court (or, as the
case
  be, so much of it as does not exceed the liability) among 
those
  ons in proportion to their claims subject to the following 
provisions
  his section.
  A payment into court of the amount of a limit determined under 
this
  ion shall be made in Hong Kong dollars and--
  for the purposes of converting such an amount from special 
drawing
  ts into Hong Kong dollars the Monetary Authority may certify, in 
Hong
  dollars, the respective amounts which are to be taken as 
equivalent
  a particular day to the sums expressed in special drawing 
rights in
  ion 9;
  a certificate signed by or on behalf of the Monetary Authority 
under
  graph (a) shall be conclusive evidence of the matters 
contained
  ein and shall in legal proceedings under this Ordinance to 
which it
  tes be admissible on its production and without further proof.
  nded 82 of 1992 s. 44)
  No claim shall be made in proceedings under this section except
within
  time as the court may direct or such further time as the court 
may
  w.
  Where any sum has been paid in or towards satisfaction of any claim
in
  ect of the pollution damage to which the liability referred 
to in
  ection (1) extends--
  by the owner or the person referred to in section 17 as "the
insurer";
  
  by a person who has or is alleged to have incurred a 
liability,
  rwise than under section 6, for that damage and who is 
entitled to
  t his liability in connection with the ship by virtue of the 
Merchant
  ping Act 1979 (1979 c. 39 U. K.), the person who paid the sum 
shall,
  he extent of that sum, be in the same position with respect to 
any
  ribution made in proceedings under this section as the person to 
whom
  as paid would, apart from this subsection, have been, 
and the
  ribution shall be made accordingly.
  Where the owner who incurred the liability referred to in
subsection
  has voluntarily made any reasonable sacrifice or taken 
any other
  onable measures to prevent or reduce pollution damage to 
which the
  ility extends or might have extended he shall be in the same 
position
  respect to any distribution made in proceedings under this
section as
  e had established a claim in respect of the liability for an 
amount
  l to the cost of the sacrifice or other measures, and the
distribution
  l be made accordingly.
  The court may, if it thinks fit, postpone the distribution of 
such
  of the amount to be distributed as it deems appropriate having
regard
  ny claims that may later be established before a court outside 
Hong
  .
  
  Restriction on enforcement of claims after establishment of
limitation
  
  e the court has found that a person who has incurred a liability
under
  ion 6 is entitled to limit that liability to any amount and 
he has
  into court a sum not less than that amount--
  the court shall order the release of any ship or other 
property
  sted in connection with a claim in respect of that liability or 
any
  rity given to prevent or obtain release from such an arrest; and
  no judgment or decree for any such claim shall be enforced, except 
so
  as it is for costs,
  sum paid into court, or such part thereof as corresponds to the
claim,
  be actually available to the claimant or would have been available
to
  if the proper steps in the proceedings under section 10 
had been
  n.
  Concurrent liabilities of owners and others
  e, as a result of any discharge or escape of persistent oil 
from a
  , he owner of the ship incurs a liability under section 6 and 
any
  r person incurs a liability, otherwise than under that section, 
for
  such pollution damage as is mentioned in subsection (1) 
of that
  ion, then, if--
  the owner has been found, in proceedings under section 10, 
to be
  tled to limit his liability to any amount and has paid into 
court a
  not less than that amount; and
  the other person is entitled to limit his liability in connection
with
  ship by virtue of the Merchant Shipping Act 1979 (1979 c. 39 U. 
K.),
  roceedings shall be taken against the other person in respect of 
his
  ility, and if any such proceedings were commenced before the 
owner
  the sum into court, no further steps shall be taken 
in the
  eedings except in relation to costs.
  Establishment of limitation fund outside Hong Kong
  e the events resulting in the liability of any person under
section 6
  result in a corresponding liability under the law of a 
Liability
  ention country other than Hong Kong, sections 11 and 12 shall
apply as
  he references to sections 6 and 10 included references 
to the
  esponding provisions of that law and the references to sums paid 
into
  t included references to any sums secured under those 
provisions in
  ect of the liability.
  Extinguishment of claims under Part II
  ction to enforce a claim in respect of a liability incurred 
under
  ion 6 shall be brought in any court in Hong Kong unless the action 
is
  enced not later than 3 years after the claim arose and not later 
than
  ars after the occurrence or, if there is more than 
one such
  rrence, the first of such occurrences resulting in the 
discharge or
  pe by reason of which the liability was incurred.
  
  Compulsory insurance against liability for oil pollution
  Subject to section 19, subsection (2) applies to any ship carrying 
in
  a cargo of more than 2,000 tons of persistent oil as 
defined in
  lations made under this section.
  A ship to which this subsection applies shall not enter or leave--
  the waters of Hong Kong; or
  if the ship is a Hong Kong ship, a port in any other country 
or a
  inal installation in the territorial sea of any other country, 
unless
  e is in force a certificate complying with subsection 
(4) and
  ifying that there is in force in respect of the ship a 
contract of
  rance or other security satisfying the requirements of Article

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